Bloom's taxonomy - Wikipedia

Bloom's taxonomy is a set of three hierarchical models used to classify educational learning objectives into levels of complexity and specificity. Bloom'staxonomy FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Classificationsystemineducation Bloom'staxonomyisasetofthreehierarchicalmodelsusedtoclassifyeducationallearningobjectivesintolevelsofcomplexityandspecificity.Thethreelistscoverthelearningobjectivesincognitive,affectiveandsensorydomains.Thecognitivedomainlisthasbeentheprimaryfocusofmosttraditionaleducationandisfrequentlyusedtostructurecurriculumlearningobjectives,assessmentsandactivities. ThemodelswerenamedafterBenjaminBloom,whochairedthecommitteeofeducatorsthatdevisedthetaxonomy.Healsoeditedthefirstvolumeofthestandardtext,TaxonomyofEducationalObjectives:TheClassificationofEducationalGoals.[1][2] Contents 1History 2Thecognitivedomain(knowledge-based),originalversion 2.1Knowledge 2.2Comprehension 2.3Application 2.4Analysis 2.5Synthesis 2.6Evaluation 3Theaffectivedomain(emotion-based) 3.1Receiving 3.2Responding 3.3Valuing 3.4Organizing 3.5Characterizing 4Thepsychomotordomain(action-based) 4.1Perception 4.2Set 4.3Guidedresponse 4.4Mechanism 4.5Complexovertresponse 4.6Adaptation 4.7Origination 5Definitionofknowledge 6Criticismofthetaxonomy 7Implications 8Connectionsacrossdisciplines 9Visualinterpretations 10Seealso 11References 12Furtherreading History[edit] AlthoughnamedafterBloom,thepublicationofTaxonomyofEducationalObjectivesfollowedaseriesofconferencesfrom1949to1953,whichweredesignedtoimprovecommunicationbetweeneducatorsonthedesignofcurriculaandexaminations.[3] Thefirstvolumeofthetaxonomy,HandbookI:Cognitive[1]waspublishedin1956,andin1964thesecondvolumeHandbookII:Affectivewaspublished.[4][5][6][7][8]Arevisedversionofthetaxonomyforthecognitivedomainwascreatedin2001.[9] Thecognitivedomain(knowledge-based),originalversion[edit] Inthe1956originalversionofthetaxonomy,thecognitivedomainisbrokenintothesixlevelsofobjectiveslistedbelow.[10]Inthe2001revisededitionofBloom'staxonomy,thelevelshaveslightlydifferentnamesandtheorderisrevised:Remember,Understand,Apply,Analyze,Evaluate,andCreate(ratherthanSynthesize).[9][11] Knowledge[edit] Bloom'sTaxonomy Knowledgeinvolvesrecognizingorrememberingfacts,terms,basicconcepts,oranswerswithoutnecessarilyunderstandingwhattheymean.Itscharacteristicsmayinclude: Knowledgeofspecifics—terminology,specificfacts Knowledgeofwaysandmeansofdealingwithspecifics—conventions,trendsandsequences,classificationsandcategories Knowledgeoftheuniversalsandabstractionsinafield—principlesandgeneralizations,theoriesandstructures Example:Namethreecommonvarietiesofapple. Comprehension[edit] Comprehensioninvolvesdemonstratinganunderstandingoffactsandideasbyorganizing,summarizing,translating,generalizing,givingdescriptions,andstatingthemainideas. Example:SummarizetheidentifyingcharacteristicsofaGoldenDeliciousappleandaGrannySmithapple. Application[edit] Applicationinvolvesusingacquiredknowledge—solvingproblemsinnewsituationsbyapplyingacquiredknowledge,facts,techniquesandrules.Learnersshouldbeabletousepriorknowledgetosolveproblems,identifyconnectionsandrelationshipsandhowtheyapplyinnewsituations. Example:Wouldapplespreventscurvy,adiseasecausedbyadeficiencyinvitaminC? Analysis[edit] Analysisinvolvesexaminingandbreakinginformationintocomponentparts,determininghowthepartsrelatetooneanother,identifyingmotivesorcauses,makinginferences,andfindingevidencetosupportgeneralizations.Itscharacteristicsinclude: Analysisofelements Analysisofrelationships Analysisoforganization Example:Compareandcontrastfourwaysofservingfoodsmadewithapplesandexaminewhichoneshavethehighesthealthbenefits. Synthesis[edit] Synthesisinvolvesbuildingastructureorpatternfromdiverseelements;italsoreferstotheactofputtingpartstogethertoformawhole.Itscharacteristicsinclude: Productionofauniquecommunication Productionofaplan,orproposedsetofoperations Derivationofasetofabstractrelations Example:Convertan"unhealthy"recipeforapplepietoa"healthy"recipebyreplacingyourchoiceofingredients.Argueforthehealthbenefitsofusingtheingredientsyouchoseversustheoriginalones. Evaluation[edit] Evaluationinvolvespresentinganddefendingopinionsbymakingjudgmentsaboutinformation,thevalidityofideas,orqualityofworkbasedonasetofcriteria.Itscharacteristicsinclude: Judgmentsintermsofinternalevidence Judgmentsintermsofexternalcriteria Example:Whichkindsofapplesarebestforbakingapie,andwhy? Theaffectivedomain(emotion-based)[edit] Ascaffoldinghierarchyoftheaffectivedomainrelatedtolearning Skillsintheaffectivedomaindescribethewaypeoplereactemotionallyandtheirabilitytofeelotherlivingthings'painorjoy.Affectiveobjectivestypicallytargettheawarenessandgrowthinattitudes,emotion,andfeelings. Therearefivelevelsintheaffectivedomainmovingthroughthelowest-orderprocessestothehighest. Receiving[edit] Thelowestlevel;thestudentpassivelypaysattention.Withoutthislevel,nolearningcanoccur.Receivingisaboutthestudent'smemoryandrecognitionaswell. Responding[edit] Thestudentactivelyparticipatesinthelearningprocess,notonlyattendstoastimulus;thestudentalsoreactsinsomeway. Valuing[edit] Thestudentattachesavaluetoanobject,phenomenon,orpieceofinformation.Thestudentassociatesavalueorsomevaluestotheknowledgetheyacquired. Organizing[edit] Thestudentcanputtogetherdifferentvalues,information,andideas,andcanaccommodatethemwithintheirownschema;thestudentiscomparing,relatingandelaboratingonwhathasbeenlearned. Characterizing[edit] Thestudentatthisleveltriestobuildabstractknowledge. Thepsychomotordomain(action-based)[edit] Ascaffoldinghierarchyofthepyschomotordomainrelatedtolearning Skillsinthepsychomotordomaindescribetheabilitytophysicallymanipulateatoolorinstrumentlikeahandorahammer.Psychomotorobjectivesusuallyfocusonchangeand/ordevelopmentinbehaviorand/orskills. Bloomandhiscolleaguesnevercreatedsubcategoriesforskillsinthepsychomotordomain,butsincethenothereducatorshavecreatedtheirownpsychomotortaxonomies.[7]Simpson(1972)[12]proposedthefollowinglevels: Perception[edit] Theabilitytousesensorycuestoguidemotoractivity:Thisrangesfromsensorystimulation,throughcueselection,totranslation. Examples:Detectsnon-verbalcommunicationcues.Estimatewhereaballwilllandafteritisthrownandthenmovingtothecorrectlocationtocatchtheball.Adjustsheatofthestovetocorrecttemperaturebysmellandtasteoffood.Adjuststheheightoftheforksonaforkliftbycomparingwheretheforksareinrelationtothepallet. Keywords:chooses,describes,detects,differentiates,distinguishes,identifies,isolates,relates,selects. Set[edit] Readinesstoact:Itincludesmental,physical,andemotionalsets.Thesethreesetsaredispositionsthatpredetermineaperson'sresponsetodifferentsituations(sometimescalledmindsets).Thissubdivisionofpsychomotoriscloselyrelatedwiththe"respondingtophenomena"subdivisionoftheaffectivedomain. Examples:Knowsandactsuponasequenceofstepsinamanufacturingprocess.Recognizeshisorherabilitiesandlimitations.Showsdesiretolearnanewprocess(motivation). Keywords:begins,displays,explains,moves,proceeds,reacts,shows,states,volunteers. Guidedresponse[edit] Theearlystagesoflearningacomplexskillthatincludesimitationandtrialanderror:Adequacyofperformanceisachievedbypracticing. Examples:Performsamathematicalequationasdemonstrated.Followsinstructionstobuildamodel.Respondstohand-signalsoftheinstructorwhilelearningtooperateaforklift. Keywords:copies,traces,follows,reacts,reproduces,responds. Mechanism[edit] Theintermediatestageinlearningacomplexskill:Learnedresponseshavebecomehabitualandthemovementscanbeperformedwithsomeconfidenceandproficiency. Examples:Useapersonalcomputer.Repairaleakingtap.Driveacar. Keywords:assembles,calibrates,constructs,dismantles,displays,fastens,fixes,grinds,heats,manipulates,measures,mends,mixes,organizes,sketches. Complexovertresponse[edit] Theskillfulperformanceofmotoractsthatinvolvecomplexmovementpatterns:Proficiencyisindicatedbyaquick,accurate,andhighlycoordinatedperformance,requiringaminimumofenergy.Thiscategoryincludesperformingwithouthesitationandautomaticperformance.Forexample,playerswilloftenuttersoundsofsatisfactionorexpletivesassoonastheyhitatennisballorthrowafootballbecausetheycantellbythefeeloftheactwhattheresultwillproduce. Examples:Maneuversacarintoatightparallelparkingspot.Operatesacomputerquicklyandaccurately.Displayscompetencewhileplayingthepiano. Keywords:assembles,builds,calibrates,constructs,dismantles,displays,fastens,fixes,grinds,heats,manipulates,measures,mends,mixes,organizes,sketches.(Note:Thekeywordsarethesameasinmechanism,butwillhaveadverbsoradjectivesthatindicatethattheperformanceisquicker,better,moreaccurate,etc.) Adaptation[edit] Skillsarewelldevelopedandtheindividualcanmodifymovementpatternstofitspecialrequirements. Examples:Respondseffectivelytounexpectedexperiences.Modifiesinstructiontomeettheneedsofthelearners.Performsataskwithamachinethatwasnotoriginallyintendedforthatpurpose(themachineisnotdamagedandthereisnodangerinperformingthenewtask). Keywords:adapts,alters,changes,rearranges,reorganizes,revises,varies. Origination[edit] Creatingnewmovementpatternstofitaparticularsituationorspecificproblem:Learningoutcomesemphasizecreativitybaseduponhighlydevelopedskills. Examples:Constructsanewsetorpatternofmovementsorganizedaroundanovelconceptortheory.Developsanewandcomprehensivetrainingprogram.Createsanewgymnasticroutine. Keywords:arranges,builds,combines,composes,constructs,creates,designs,initiates,makes,originates. Definitionofknowledge[edit] IntheappendixtoHandbookI,thereisadefinitionofknowledgewhichservesastheapexforanalternative,summaryclassificationoftheeducationalgoals.Thisissignificantasthetaxonomyhasbeencalleduponsignificantlyinotherfieldssuchasknowledgemanagement,potentiallyoutofcontext."Knowledge,asdefinedhere,involvestherecallofspecificsanduniversals,therecallofmethodsandprocesses,ortherecallofapattern,structure,orsetting."[13] Thetaxonomyissetoutasfollows: 1.00Knowledge 1.10Knowledgeofspecifics 1.11Knowledgeofterminology 1.12Knowledgeofspecificfacts 1.20Knowledgeofwaysandmeansofdealingwithspecifics 1.21Knowledgeofconventions 1.22Knowledgeoftrendsandsequences 1.23Knowledgeofclassificationsandcategories 1.24Knowledgeofcriteria 1.25Knowledgeofmethodology 1.30Knowledgeoftheuniversalsandabstractionsinafield 1.31Knowledgeofprinciplesandgeneralizations 1.32Knowledgeoftheoriesandstructures Criticismofthetaxonomy[edit] AsMorshead(1965)pointedoutonthepublicationofthesecondvolume,theclassificationwasnotaproperlyconstructedtaxonomy,asitlackedasystematicrationaleofconstruction. Thiswassubsequentlyacknowledgedinthediscussionoftheoriginaltaxonomyinits2001revision,[9]andthetaxonomywasreestablishedonmoresystematiclines. Somecritiquesofthetaxonomy'scognitivedomainadmittheexistenceofthesesixcategoriesbutquestiontheexistenceofasequential,hierarchicallink.[14]Often,educatorsviewthetaxonomyasahierarchyandmaymistakenlydismissthelowestlevelsasunworthyofteaching.[15][16]Thelearningofthelowerlevelsenablesthebuildingofskillsinthehigherlevelsofthetaxonomy,andinsomefields,themostimportantskillsareinthelowerlevels(suchasidentificationofspeciesofplantsandanimalsinthefieldofnaturalhistory).[15][16]Instructionalscaffoldingofhigher-levelskillsfromlower-levelskillsisanapplicationofVygotskianconstructivism.[17][18] Someconsiderthethreelowestlevelsashierarchicallyordered,butthethreehigherlevelsasparallel.[9]Otherssaythatitissometimesbettertomovetoapplicationbeforeintroducingconcepts,[citationneeded]thegoalbeingtocreateaproblem-basedlearningenvironmentwheretherealworldcontextcomesfirstandthetheorysecond,topromotethestudent'sgraspofthephenomenon,concept,orevent. Thedistinctionbetweenthecategoriescanbeseenasartificialsinceanygivencognitivetaskmayentailanumberofprocesses.Itcouldevenbearguedthatanyattempttonicelycategorizecognitiveprocessesintoclean,cut-and-driedclassificationsunderminestheholistic,highlyconnectiveandinterrelatednatureofcognition.[19]Thisisacriticismthatcanbedirectedattaxonomiesofmentalprocessesingeneral. Thetaxonomyiswidelyimplementedasahierarchyofverbs,designedtobeusedwhenwritinglearningoutcomes,buta2020analysisshowedthattheseverblistsshowednoconsistencybetweeneducationalinstitutions,andthuslearningoutcomesthatweremappedtoonelevelofthehierarchyatoneeducationalinstitutioncouldbemappedtodifferentlevelsatanotherinstitution.[20] Implications[edit] Bloom'staxonomyservesasthebackboneofmanyteachingphilosophies,inparticular,thosethatleanmoretowardsskillsratherthancontent.[8][9]Theseeducatorsviewcontentasavesselforteachingskills.Theemphasisonhigher-orderthinkinginherentinsuchphilosophiesisbasedonthetoplevelsofthetaxonomyincludingapplication,analysis,synthesis,andevaluation.[citationneeded]Bloom'staxonomycanbeusedasateachingtooltohelpbalanceevaluativeandassessment-basedquestionsinassignments,texts,andin-classengagementstoensurethatallordersofthinkingareexercisedinstudents'learning,includingaspectsofinformationsearching.[21] Connectionsacrossdisciplines[edit] Bloom'staxonomy(andtherevisedtaxonomy)continuestobeasourceofinspirationforeducationalphilosophyandfordevelopingnewteachingstrategies.Theskilldevelopmentthattakesplaceathigherordersofthinkinginteractswellwithadevelopingglobalfocusonmultipleliteraciesandmodalitiesinlearningandtheemergingfieldofintegrateddisciplines.[22]Theabilitytointerfacewithandcreatemediawoulddrawuponskillsfrombothhigherorderthinkingskills(analysis,creation,andevaluation)andlowerorderthinkingskills(knowledge,comprehension,andapplication).[23][24] Visualinterpretations[edit] Bloom'soriginaltaxonomymaynothaveincludedverbsorvisualrepresentations,butsubsequentcontributionstotheideahaveportrayedtheideasvisuallyforresearchers,teachersandstudents. Bloom'staxonomyorganizedradially Bloom'srevisedtaxonomyorganizedasapyramidoflearninglevelswithexplanationsofeach Bloom'staxonomyverbsportrayedasalightbulb Bloom'scognitivedomainorganizedasaninvertedpyramid Seealso[edit] DIKWpyramid –Data,information,knowledge,wisdomhierarchy Educationalpsychology –Branchofpsychologyconcernedwiththescientificstudyofhumanlearning Educationaltechnology –Useoftechnologyineducationtoimprovelearningandteaching Fluidandcrystallizedintelligence –Factorsofgeneralintelligence Higher-orderthinking –Conceptofeducationreform InOverOurHeads –BookbyRobertKegan Integrativecomplexity –Researchpsychometric Know-how –Practicalknowledgeonhowtoaccomplishsomething Ladderofinference Learningcycle –Howpeoplelearnfromexperience Learningstyles –Largelydebunkedtheoriesthataimtoaccountfordifferencesinindividuals'learning Masterylearning –Instructionalstrategyandeducationalphilosophy Metacognition –Thinkingaboutthinking,higher-orderthinkingskills Modelofhierarchicalcomplexity –Frameworkforscoringhowcomplexabehavioris Pedagogy –Theoryandpracticeofeducation Physicaleducation –Educationalcourserelatedtothephysiqueofthehumanbody Reflectivepractice –Abilitytoreflectonone'sactionssoastoengageinaprocessofcontinuouslearning Rubric(academic) –Scoringguideforassessment Structureofobservedlearningoutcome –Modeloflevelsofincreasingcomplexityinunderstanding Wisdom –Abilitytothinkandactusingknowledge,experience,understanding,commonsenseandinsight References[edit] ^abBloom,B.S.;Engelhart,M.D.;Furst,E.J.;Hill,W.H.;Krathwohl,D.R.(1956).Taxonomyofeducationalobjectives:Theclassificationofeducationalgoals.HandbookI:Cognitivedomain.NewYork:DavidMcKayCompany. ^Shane,HaroldG.(1981)."Significantwritingsthathaveinfluencedthecurriculum:1906-1981".PhiDeltaKappan.62(5):311–314. ^Bloometal.1956,p. 4:"Theideaforthisclassificationsystemwasformedataninformalmeetingofcollegeexaminersattendingthe1948AmericanPsychologicalAssociationConventioninBoston.Atthismeeting,interestwasexpressedinatheoreticalframeworkwhichcouldbeusedtofacilitatecommunicationamongexaminers. ^Simpson,ElizabethJ.(1966)."Theclassificationofeducationalobjectives:Psychomotordomain".IllinoisJournalofHomeEconomics.10(4):110–144. ^*Harrow,AnitaJ.(1972).Ataxonomyofthepsychomotordomain:Aguidefordevelopingbehavioralobjectives.NewYork:DavidMcKayCompany. ^*Dave,R.H.(1975).Armstrong,R.J.(ed.).Developingandwritingbehavioralobjectives.Tucson:EducationalInnovatorsPress. ^abClark,DonaldR.(1999)."Bloom'sTaxonomyofLearningDomains".Retrieved28Jan2014. ^abKrathwohl,DavidR.(2002)."ArevisionofBloom'staxonomy:Anoverview".TheoryintoPractice.Routledge.41(4):212–218.doi:10.1207/s15430421tip4104_2.ISSN 0040-5841.S2CID 13116159. ^abcdeAnderson,LorinW.;Krathwohl,DavidR.,eds.(2001).Ataxonomyforlearning,teaching,andassessing:ArevisionofBloom'staxonomyofeducationalobjectives.NewYork:Longman.ISBN 978-0-8013-1903-7. ^Hoy,AnitaWoolfolk(2007).Educationalpsychology(10th ed.).Boston:Pearson/AllynandBacon.pp. 530–531,545.ISBN 978-0205459469.OCLC 68694368. ^Armstrong,Patricia(2010-06-10)."Bloom'sTaxonomy".VanderbiltUniversityCenterforTeaching.VanderbiltUniversity.Retrieved29June2016. ^Simpson,Elizabeth(1972)."Educationalobjectivesinthepsychomotordomain"(PDF).3.Washington,D.C.:GryphonHouse:25–30.Retrieved3April2018.Citejournalrequires|journal=(help) ^Bloometal.1956,p. 201. ^Paul,R.(1993).Criticalthinking:whateverypersonneedstosurviveinarapidlychangingworld(3rd ed.).RohnertPark,California:SonomaStateUniversityPress. ^abFlannery,MauraC.(November2007)."Observationsonbiology"(PDF).TheAmericanBiologyTeacher.69(9):561–564.doi:10.1662/0002-7685(2007)69[561:OOB]2.0.CO;2.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on2017-03-06.Retrieved2017-03-05.Biologyisoftenreferredtoasanobservationalsciencealmostasaslur,withtheimplicationthatbiologistssimplylookatthelivingworldwithoutthestrongtheoreticalandmathematicunderpinningsofasciencelikephysics.Thereisthesuggestionthatobservationiseasy.Thusbiologyisviewedasalightweightscience—anyonecandoit:justgooutandstartlooking,atbirds,atgrass,atcellsunderthemicroscope.BenjaminBloom'staxonomyoflearningtasksputsobservationatthelowestlevel,withrecallofinformation.ThisdenigrationofobservationhaslongbotheredmebecauseIseeitasoftendifficultandcomplex,askillthatneedstobelearnedandatalentthatismuchmoredevelopedinsome. ^abLawler,Susan(26February2016)."Identificationofanimalsandplantsisanessentialskillset".TheConversation.Archivedfromtheoriginalon17November2016.Retrieved5March2017.Ironically,thedogmathathasbeensodetrimentaltofieldtaxonomyisknownasBloom'staxonomy.UniversitylecturersaretoldtoapplyaneducationaltheorydevelopedbyBenjaminBloom,whichcategorisesassessmenttasksandlearningactivitiesintocognitivedomains.InBloom'staxonomy,identifyingandnamingareatthelowestlevelofcognitiveskillsandhavebeensystematicallyexcludedfromUniversitydegreesbecausetheyareconsideredsimplistic. ^Vygotsky,L.S.(1978)."Chapter6:Interactionbetweenlearninganddevelopment".Mindinsociety:thedevelopmentofhigherpsychologicalprocesses.Cambridge,Massachusetts:HarvardUniversityPress.pp. 79–91. ^Keene,Judith;Colvin,John;Sissons,Justine(June2010)[2010]."MappingstudentinformationliteracyactivityagainstBloom'staxonomyofcognitiveskills".JournalofInformationLiteracy.4(1):6–21.doi:10.11645/4.1.189.Whensupportingstudentsoutsidetheclassroomsituation,asubjectawareadvisorshouldbecapableofspottingmistakesinastudent'ssolutionandofanalysingthesemistakestoidentifythedifficultythatthestudentisencountering.Suchsupportcanbeseenasofferingscaffoldinginastudent's'zoneofproximaldevelopment'(Vygotsky,1978)andexemplifiedbyteachingstudentstoanalyseaproblemthroughtheidentificationofthekeyelementsandtherelationshipsbetweentheseelements. ^Fadul,J.A.(2009)."CollectiveLearning:Applyingdistributedcognitionforcollectiveintelligence".TheInternationalJournalofLearning.16(4):211–220.doi:10.18848/1447-9494/CGP/v16i04/46223.ISSN 1447-9494. ^Newton,PhilipM.;DaSilva,Ana;Peters,LeeGeorge(10July2020)."ApragmaticmasterlistofactionverbsforBloom'staxonomy".FrontiersinEducation.5.doi:10.3389/feduc.2020.00107. ^BJJansen,DBooth,BSmith(2009)Usingthetaxonomyofcognitivelearningtomodelonlinesearching,InformationProcessing&Management45(6),643-663 ^Kress,G.;Selander,S.(2012)."Multimodaldesign,learningandculturesofrecognition".InternetandHigherEducation.15(1):265–268.doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2011.12.003. ^Paul,R.;Elder,L.(2004).Criticalandcreativethinking.DillonBeach,CA:TheFoundationforCriticalThinking. ^TheNewLondonGroup(1996).Apedagogyofmultiliteracies:designingsocialfutures.HarvardEducationalReview. Furtherreading[edit] Bloom,B.S.(1994)."Reflectionsonthedevelopmentanduseofthetaxonomy".InRehage,KennethJ.;Anderson,LorinW.;Sosniak,LaurenA.(eds.).Bloom'staxonomy:Aforty-yearretrospective.YearbookoftheNationalSocietyfortheStudyofEducation.93.Chicago:NationalSocietyfortheStudyofEducation.ISSN 1744-7984. Clark,DonaldR.(1999)."Bloom'sTaxonomyofLearningDomains".Retrieved28Jan2014. Krathwohl,D.R.;Bloom,B.S.;Masia,B.B.(1964).Taxonomyofeducationalobjectives:Theclassificationofeducationalgoals.HandbookII:theaffectivedomain.NewYork:DavidMcKayCompany. Morshead,RichardW.(1965)."OnTaxonomyofeducationalobjectivesHandbookII:Affectivedomain"(PDF).StudiesinPhilosophyandEducation.4(1):164–170.doi:10.1007/bf00373956.hdl:2027.42/43808.S2CID 143935506. Orlich,Donald;Harder,Robert;Callahan,Richard;Trevisan,Michael;Brown,Abbie(2004).Teachingstrategies:aguidetoeffectiveinstruction(7th ed.).HoughtonMifflin.ISBN 978-0-6182-9999-7. 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