Particle physics - Wikipedia

Although the word particle can refer to various types of very small objects (e.g. protons, gas particles, or even household dust), particle physics usually ... Particlephysics FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Branchofphysicsconcerningthenatureofparticles Forotherusesof"particle",seeParticle(disambiguation). TheStandardModelofparticlephysics,listingallelementaryparticlesParticlephysics(alsoknownashighenergyphysics)isabranchofphysicsthatstudiesthenatureoftheparticlesthatconstitutematterandradiation.Althoughthewordparticlecanrefertovarioustypesofverysmallobjects(e.g.protons,gasparticles,orevenhouseholddust),particlephysicsusuallyinvestigatestheirreduciblysmallestdetectableparticlesandthefundamentalinteractionsnecessarytoexplaintheirbehaviour. Incurrentunderstanding,theseelementaryparticlesareexcitationsofthequantumfieldsthatalsogoverntheirinteractions.Thecurrentlydominanttheoryexplainingthesefundamentalparticlesandfields,alongwiththeirdynamics,iscalledtheStandardModel.Thus,modernparticlephysicsgenerallyinvestigatestheStandardModelanditsvariouspossibleextensions,e.g.tothenewest"known"particle,theHiggsboson,oreventotheoldestknownforcefield,gravity.[1][2] Contents 1Subatomicparticles 2History 3StandardModel 4Experimentallaboratories 5Theory 6Practicalapplications 7Future 8Seealso 9References 10Furtherreading 11Externallinks Subatomicparticles[edit] ElementaryParticles Types Generations Antiparticle Colours Total Quarks 2 3 Pair 3 36 Leptons Pair None 12 Gluons 1 None Own 8 8 Photon Own None 1 ZBoson Own 1 WBoson Pair 2 Higgs Own 1 Totalnumberof(known)elementaryparticles: 61 Modernparticlephysicsresearchisfocusedonsubatomicparticles,includingatomicconstituents,suchaselectrons,protons,andneutrons(protonsandneutronsarecompositeparticlescalledbaryons,madeofquarks),thatareproducedbyradioactiveandscatteringprocesses;suchparticlesarephotons,neutrinos,andmuons,aswellasawiderangeofexoticparticles.[3] Dynamicsofparticlesarealsogovernedbyquantummechanics;theyexhibitwave–particleduality,displayingparticle-likebehaviourundercertainexperimentalconditionsandwave-likebehaviourinothers.Inmoretechnicalterms,theyaredescribedbyquantumstatevectorsinaHilbertspace,whichisalsotreatedinquantumfieldtheory.Followingtheconventionofparticlephysicists,thetermelementaryparticlesisappliedtothoseparticlesthatare,accordingtocurrentunderstanding,presumedtobeindivisibleandnotcomposedofotherparticles.[4] AllparticlesandtheirinteractionsobservedtodatecanbedescribedalmostentirelybyaquantumfieldtheorycalledtheStandardModel.[5]TheStandardModel,ascurrentlyformulated,has61elementaryparticles.[4] Thoseelementaryparticlescancombinetoformcompositeparticles,accountingforthehundredsofotherspeciesofparticlesthathavebeendiscoveredsincethe1960s. TheStandardModelhasbeenfoundtoagreewithalmostalltheexperimentaltestsconductedtodate.However,mostparticlephysicistsbelievethatitisanincompletedescriptionofnatureandthatamorefundamentaltheoryawaitsdiscovery(SeeTheoryofEverything).Inrecentyears,measurementsofneutrinomasshaveprovidedthefirstexperimentaldeviationsfromtheStandardModel,sinceneutrinosaremasslessintheStandardModel.[6] History[edit] Modernphysics H ^ | ψ n ( t ) ⟩ = i ℏ ∂ ∂ t | ψ n ( t ) ⟩ {\displaystyle{\hat{H}}|\psi_{n}(t)\rangle=i\hbar{\frac{\partial}{\partialt}}|\psi_{n}(t)\rangle} 1 c 2 ∂ 2 ϕ n ∂ t 2 − ∇ 2 ϕ n + ( m c ℏ ) 2 ϕ n = 0 {\displaystyle{\frac{1}{{c}^{2}}}{\frac{{\partial}^{2}{\phi}_{n}}{{\partialt}^{2}}}-{{\nabla}^{2}{\phi}_{n}}+{\left({\frac{mc}{\hbar}}\right)}^{2}{\phi}_{n}=0} Manifolddynamics:SchrödingerandKlein–Gordonequations FoundersMaxPlanck ·AlbertEinstein ·NielsBohr ·MaxBorn ·WernerHeisenberg ·ErwinSchrödinger ·PascualJordan ·WolfgangPauli ·PaulDirac ·ErnestRutherford ·LouisdeBroglie ·SatyendraNathBose ConceptsTopology ·Space ·Time ·Energy ·Matter ·WorkRandomness ·Information ·Entropy ·MindLight ·Particle ·Wave BranchesApplied ·Experimental ·TheoreticalMathematical ·PhilosophyofphysicsQuantummechanics(Quantumfieldtheory ·Quantuminformation ·Quantumcomputation)Electromagnetism ·Weakinteraction ·ElectroweakinteractionStronginteractionAtomic ·Particle ·NuclearAtomic,molecular,andopticalCondensedmatter ·StatisticalComplexsystems ·Non-lineardynamics ·BiophysicsNeurophysicsPlasmaphysicsSpecialrelativity ·GeneralrelativityAstrophysics ·CosmologyTheoriesofgravitationQuantumgravity ·Theoryofeverything ScientistsWitten ·Röntgen ·Becquerel ·Lorentz ·Planck ·Curie ·Wien ·Skłodowska-Curie ·Sommerfeld ·Rutherford ·Soddy ·Onnes ·Einstein ·Wilczek ·Born ·Weyl ·Bohr ·Kramers ·Schrödinger ·deBroglie ·Laue ·Bose ·Compton ·Pauli ·Walton ·Fermi ·vanderWaals ·Heisenberg ·Dyson ·Zeeman ·Moseley ·Hilbert ·Gödel ·Jordan ·Dirac ·Wigner ·Hawking ·P.W.Anderson ·Lemaître ·Thomson ·Poincaré ·Wheeler ·Penrose ·Millikan ·Nambu ·vonNeumann ·Higgs ·Hahn ·Feynman ·Yang ·Lee ·Lenard ·Salam ·'tHooft ·Veltman ·Bell ·Gell-Mann ·J.J.Thomson ·Raman ·Bragg ·Bardeen ·Shockley ·Chadwick ·Lawrence ·Zeilinger ·Goudsmit ·Uhlenbeck CategoriesModernphysics vte Mainarticle:Historyofsubatomicphysics Theideathatallmatterisfundamentallycomposedofelementaryparticlesdatesfromatleastthe6thcenturyBC.[7]Inthe19thcentury,JohnDalton,throughhisworkonstoichiometry,concludedthateachelementofnaturewascomposedofasingle,uniquetypeofparticle.[8]Thewordatom,aftertheGreekwordatomosmeaning"indivisible",hassincethendenotedthesmallestparticleofachemicalelement,butphysicistssoondiscoveredthatatomsarenot,infact,thefundamentalparticlesofnature,butareconglomeratesofevensmallerparticles,suchastheelectron.Theearly20thcenturyexplorationsofnuclearphysicsandquantumphysicsledtoproofsofnuclearfissionin1939byLiseMeitner(basedonexperimentsbyOttoHahn),andnuclearfusionbyHansBetheinthatsameyear;bothdiscoveriesalsoledtothedevelopmentofnuclearweapons.Throughoutthe1950sand1960s,abewilderingvarietyofparticleswerefoundincollisionsofparticlesfrombeamsofincreasinglyhighenergy.Itwasreferredtoinformallyasthe"particlezoo".ImportantdiscoveriessuchastheCPviolationbyJamesCroninandValFitchbroughtnewquestionstomatter-antimatterimbalance.[9]AftertheformulationoftheStandardModelduringthe1970s,physicistsclarifiedtheoriginoftheparticlezoo.Thelargenumberofparticleswasexplainedascombinationsofa(relatively)smallnumberofmorefundamentalparticlesandframedinthecontextofquantumfieldtheories.Thisreclassificationmarkedthebeginningofmodernparticlephysics.[10][11] StandardModel[edit] Mainarticle:StandardModel ThecurrentstateoftheclassificationofallelementaryparticlesisexplainedbytheStandardModel,whichgainedwidespreadacceptanceinthemid-1970safterexperimentalconfirmationoftheexistenceofquarks.Itdescribesthestrong,weak,andelectromagneticfundamentalinteractions,usingmediatinggaugebosons.Thespeciesofgaugebosonsareeightgluons,W−,W+andZbosons,andthephoton.[5]TheStandardModelalsocontains24fundamentalfermions(12particlesandtheirassociatedanti-particles),whicharetheconstituentsofallmatter.[12]Finally,theStandardModelalsopredictedtheexistenceofatypeofbosonknownastheHiggsboson.On4July2012,physicistswiththeLargeHadronCollideratCERNannouncedtheyhadfoundanewparticlethatbehavessimilarlytowhatisexpectedfromtheHiggsboson.[13] Experimentallaboratories[edit] FermiNationalAcceleratorLaboratory,USA Theworld'smajorparticlephysicslaboratoriesare: BrookhavenNationalLaboratory(LongIsland,UnitedStates).ItsmainfacilityistheRelativisticHeavyIonCollider(RHIC),whichcollidesheavyionssuchasgoldionsandpolarizedprotons.Itistheworld'sfirstheavyioncollider,andtheworld'sonlypolarizedprotoncollider.[14][15] BudkerInstituteofNuclearPhysics(Novosibirsk,Russia).Itsmainprojectsarenowtheelectron-positroncollidersVEPP-2000,[16]operatedsince2006,andVEPP-4,[17]startedexperimentsin1994.Earlierfacilitiesincludethefirstelectron–electronbeam–beamcolliderVEP-1,whichconductedexperimentsfrom1964to1968;theelectron-positroncollidersVEPP-2,operatedfrom1965to1974;and,itssuccessorVEPP-2M,[18]performedexperimentsfrom1974to2000.[19] CERN(EuropeanOrganizationforNuclearResearch)(Franco-Swissborder,nearGeneva).ItsmainprojectisnowtheLargeHadronCollider(LHC),whichhaditsfirstbeamcirculationon10September2008,andisnowtheworld'smostenergeticcolliderofprotons.Italsobecamethemostenergeticcolliderofheavyionsafteritbegancollidingleadions.EarlierfacilitiesincludetheLargeElectron–PositronCollider(LEP),whichwasstoppedon2November2000andthendismantledtogivewayforLHC;andtheSuperProtonSynchrotron,whichisbeingreusedasapre-acceleratorfortheLHCandforfixed-targetexperiments.[20] DESY(DeutschesElektronen-Synchrotron)(Hamburg,Germany).ItsmainfacilitywastheHadronElektronRingAnlage(HERA),whichcollidedelectronsandpositronswithprotons.[21]TheacceleratorcomplexisnowfocusedontheproductionofsynchrotronradiationwithPETRAIII,FLASHandtheEuropeanXFEL. FermiNationalAcceleratorLaboratory(Fermilab)(Batavia,UnitedStates).Itsmainfacilityuntil2011wastheTevatron,whichcollidedprotonsandantiprotonsandwasthehighest-energyparticlecollideronearthuntiltheLargeHadronCollidersurpassediton29November2009.[22] InstituteofHighEnergyPhysics(IHEP)(Beijing,China).IHEPmanagesanumberofChina'smajorparticlephysicsfacilities,includingtheBeijingElectron–PositronColliderII(BEPCII),theBeijingSpectrometer(BES),theBeijingSynchrotronRadiationFacility(BSRF),theInternationalCosmic-RayObservatoryatYangbajinginTibet,theDayaBayReactorNeutrinoExperiment,theChinaSpallationNeutronSource,theHardX-rayModulationTelescope(HXMT),andtheAccelerator-drivenSub-criticalSystem(ADS)aswellastheJiangmenUndergroundNeutrinoObservatory(JUNO).[23] KEK(Tsukuba,Japan).ItisthehomeofanumberofexperimentssuchastheK2Kexperiment,aneutrinooscillationexperimentandBelleII,anexperimentmeasuringtheCPviolationofBmesons.[24] SLACNationalAcceleratorLaboratory(MenloPark,UnitedStates).Its2-mile-longlinearparticleacceleratorbeganoperatingin1962andwasthebasisfornumerouselectronandpositroncollisionexperimentsuntil2008.SincethenthelinearacceleratorisbeingusedfortheLinacCoherentLightSourceX-raylaseraswellasadvancedacceleratordesignresearch.SLACstaffcontinuetoparticipateindevelopingandbuildingmanyparticledetectorsaroundtheworld.[25] Manyotherparticleacceleratorsalsoexist. Thetechniquesrequiredformodernexperimentalparticlephysicsarequitevariedandcomplex,constitutingasub-specialtynearlycompletelydistinct[citationneeded]fromthetheoreticalsideofthefield. Theory[edit] QuantumfieldtheoryFeynmandiagram History Background Fieldtheory Electromagnetism Weakforce Strongforce Quantummechanics Specialrelativity Generalrelativity Gaugetheory Symmetries Symmetryinquantummechanics C-symmetry P-symmetry T-symmetry Spacetranslationsymmetry Timetranslationsymmetry Rotationsymmetry Lorentzsymmetry Poincarésymmetry Gaugesymmetry Explicitsymmetrybreaking Spontaneoussymmetrybreaking Yang–Millstheory Noethercharge Topologicalcharge Tools Anomaly Crossing Effectivefieldtheory Expectationvalue Faddeev–Popovghosts Feynmandiagram Latticegaugetheory LSZreductionformula Partitionfunction Propagator Quantization Regularization Renormalization Vacuumstate Wick'stheorem Wightmanaxioms Equations Diracequation Klein–Gordonequation Procaequations Wheeler–DeWittequation Bargmann–Wignerequations StandardModel Quantumelectrodynamics Electroweakinteraction Quantumchromodynamics Higgsmechanism Incompletetheories Topologicalquantumfieldtheory Stringtheory Supersymmetry Technicolor Theoryofeverything Quantumgravity Scientists Anderson Anselm Atiyah Bargmann Becchi Belavin Bender Bethe Bjorken Bleuer Bogoliubov Brodsky Brout Brown Buchholz Callan Caswell Coleman Connes Dashen DeWitt Dirac Doplicher Dyson Englert Faddeev Fadin Fermi Feynman Fierz Fock Fredenhagen Fritzsch Fröhlich Furry Glashow Glimm Gelfand Gell-Mann Goldstone Gribov Gross Gupta Guralnik Haag Heisenberg Hepp Higgs Hagen 'tHooft Iliopoulos Itzykson Ivanenko Jaffe Jona-Lasinio Jordan Jost Källén Kaplan Kastler Kendall Kibble Klebanov Kontsevich Kuraev Lamb Landau Lee Lee Lehmann Lepage Lipatov Low Lüders Maiani Majorana Maldacena Migdal Mills Møller Naimark Nambu Neveu Nishijima Oehme Oppenheimer Osterwalder Parisi Pauli Politzer Polyakov Pomeranchuk Popov Proca Ruelle Salam Schwarz Schwinger Segal Seiberg Semenoff Shirkov Skyrme Stora Stueckelberg Sudarshan Symanzik Thirring Tomonaga Tyutin Veltman Virasoro Ward Weinberg Weisskopf Wentzel Wess Wetterich Weyl Wick Wightman Wigner Wilczek Wilson Witten Yang Yukawa Zamolodchikov Zamolodchikov Zimmermann Zinn-Justin Zuber Zumino vte Theoreticalparticlephysicsattemptstodevelopthemodels,theoreticalframework,andmathematicaltoolstounderstandcurrentexperimentsandmakepredictionsforfutureexperiments(seealsotheoreticalphysics).Thereareseveralmajorinterrelatedeffortsbeingmadeintheoreticalparticlephysicstoday. OneimportantbranchattemptstobetterunderstandtheStandardModelanditstests.Theoristsmakequantitativepredictionsofobservablesatcolliderandastronomicalexperiments,whichalongwithexperimentalmeasurementsisusedtoextracttheparametersoftheStandardModelwithlessuncertainty.ThisworkprobesthelimitsoftheStandardModelandthereforeexpandsscientificunderstandingofnature'sbuildingblocks.Thoseeffortsaremadechallengingbythedifficultyofcalculatinghighprecisionquantitiesinquantumchromodynamics.Sometheoristsworkinginthisareausethetoolsofperturbativequantumfieldtheoryandeffectivefieldtheory,referringtothemselvesasphenomenologists.[citationneeded]Othersmakeuseoflatticefieldtheoryandcallthemselveslatticetheorists. AnothermajoreffortisinmodelbuildingwheremodelbuildersdevelopideasforwhatphysicsmayliebeyondtheStandardModel(athigherenergiesorsmallerdistances).Thisworkisoftenmotivatedbythehierarchyproblemandisconstrainedbyexistingexperimentaldata.[citationneeded]Itmayinvolveworkonsupersymmetry,alternativestotheHiggsmechanism,extraspatialdimensions(suchastheRandall–Sundrummodels),Preontheory,combinationsofthese,orotherideas. Athirdmajoreffortintheoreticalparticlephysicsisstringtheory.Stringtheoristsattempttoconstructaunifieddescriptionofquantummechanicsandgeneralrelativitybybuildingatheorybasedonsmallstrings,andbranesratherthanparticles.Ifthetheoryissuccessful,itmaybeconsidereda"TheoryofEverything",or"TOE".[26] Therearealsootherareasofworkintheoreticalparticlephysicsrangingfromparticlecosmologytoloopquantumgravity.[citationneeded] ThisdivisionofeffortsinparticlephysicsisreflectedinthenamesofcategoriesonthearXiv,apreprintarchive:[27]hep-th(theory),hep-ph(phenomenology),hep-ex(experiments),hep-lat(latticegaugetheory). Practicalapplications[edit] Inprinciple,allphysics(andpracticalapplicationsdevelopedtherefrom)canbederivedfromthestudyoffundamentalparticles.Inpractice,evenif"particlephysics"istakentomeanonly"high-energyatomsmashers",manytechnologieshavebeendevelopedduringthesepioneeringinvestigationsthatlaterfindwideusesinsociety.Particleacceleratorsareusedtoproducemedicalisotopesforresearchandtreatment(forexample,isotopesusedinPETimaging),oruseddirectlyinexternalbeamradiotherapy.Thedevelopmentofsuperconductorshasbeenpushedforwardbytheiruseinparticlephysics.TheWorldWideWebandtouchscreentechnologywereinitiallydevelopedatCERN.Additionalapplicationsarefoundinmedicine,nationalsecurity,industry,computing,science,andworkforcedevelopment,illustratingalongandgrowinglistofbeneficialpracticalapplicationswithcontributionsfromparticlephysics.[28] Future[edit] Theprimarygoal,whichispursuedinseveraldistinctways,istofindandunderstandwhatphysicsmayliebeyondthestandardmodel.Thereareseveralpowerfulexperimentalreasonstoexpectnewphysics,includingdarkmatterandneutrinomass.Therearealsotheoreticalhintsthatthisnewphysicsshouldbefoundataccessibleenergyscales. Muchoftheefforttofindthisnewphysicsarefocusedonnewcolliderexperiments.TheLargeHadronCollider(LHC)wascompletedin2008tohelpcontinuethesearchfortheHiggsboson,supersymmetricparticles,andothernewphysics.AnintermediategoalistheconstructionoftheInternationalLinearCollider(ILC),whichwillcomplementtheLHCbyallowingmoreprecisemeasurementsofthepropertiesofnewlyfoundparticles.InAugust2004,adecisionforthetechnologyoftheILCwastakenbutthesitehasstilltobeagreedupon. Inaddition,thereareimportantnon-colliderexperimentsthatalsoattempttofindandunderstandphysicsbeyondtheStandardModel.Oneimportantnon-collidereffortisthedeterminationoftheneutrinomasses,sincethesemassesmayarisefromneutrinosmixingwithveryheavyparticles.Inaddition,cosmologicalobservationsprovidemanyusefulconstraintsonthedarkmatter,althoughitmaybeimpossibletodeterminetheexactnatureofthedarkmatterwithoutthecolliders.Finally,lowerboundsontheverylonglifetimeoftheprotonputconstraintsonGrandUnifiedTheoriesatenergyscalesmuchhigherthancolliderexperimentswillbeabletoprobeanytimesoon. InMay2014,theParticlePhysicsProjectPrioritizationPanelreleaseditsreportonparticlephysicsfundingprioritiesfortheUnitedStatesoverthenextdecade.ThisreportemphasizedcontinuedU.S.participationintheLHCandILC,andexpansionoftheDeepUndergroundNeutrinoExperiment,amongotherrecommendations. Seealso[edit] Particlephysicsandrepresentationtheory Atomicphysics Astronomy Highpressure InternationalConferenceonHighEnergyPhysics Introductiontoquantummechanics Listofacceleratorsinparticlephysics Listofparticles Magneticmonopole Microblackhole Numbertheory Resonance(particlephysics) Self-consistencyprincipleinhighenergyphysics Non-extensiveself-consistentthermodynamicaltheory StandardModel(mathematicalformulation) StanfordPhysicsInformationRetrievalSystem Timelineofparticlephysics Unparticlephysics Tetraquark Tracksignificance InternationalConferenceonPhotonic,ElectronicandAtomicCollisions References[edit] ^"TheHiggsBoson".CERN. ^"TheBEH-Mechanism,InteractionswithShortRangeForcesandScalarParticles"(PDF).8October2013. ^Terranova,Francesco(2021).AModernPrimerinParticleandNuclearPhysics.OxfordUniv.Press.ISBN 0-19-284524-1. ^ab Braibant,S.;Giacomelli,G.;Spurio,M.(2009).ParticlesandFundamentalInteractions:AnIntroductiontoParticlePhysics.Springer.pp. 313–314.ISBN 978-94-007-2463-1. ^ab"ParticlePhysicsandAstrophysicsResearch".TheHenrykNiewodniczanskiInstituteofNuclearPhysics.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2October2013.Retrieved31May2012. ^"NeutrinosintheStandardModel".TheT2KCollaboration.Retrieved15October2019. ^"FundamentalsofPhysicsandNuclearPhysics"(PDF).Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on2October2012.Retrieved21July2012. ^"ScientificExplorer:Quasiparticles".Sciexplorer.blogspot.com.22May2012.Archivedfromtheoriginalon19April2013.Retrieved21July2012. ^"Antimatter".1March2021. ^Weinberg,Steven(1995–2000).Thequantumtheoryoffields.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0521670531.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:dateformat(link) ^Jaeger,Gregg(2021)."TheElementaryParticlesofQuantumFields".Entropy.23(11):1416.doi:10.3390/e23111416. ^Nakamura,K(1July2010)."ReviewofParticlePhysics".JournalofPhysicsG:NuclearandParticlePhysics.37(7A):075021.Bibcode:2010JPhG...37g5021N.doi:10.1088/0954-3899/37/7A/075021.PMID 10020536. ^Mann,Adam(28March2013)."NewlyDiscoveredParticleAppearstoBeLong-AwaitedHiggsBoson".WiredScience.Retrieved6February2014. ^Harrison,M.;Ludlam,T.;Ozaki,S.(March2003)."RHICprojectoverview".NuclearInstrumentsandMethodsinPhysicsResearchSectionA:Accelerators,Spectrometers,DetectorsandAssociatedEquipment.499(2–3):235–244.Bibcode:2003NIMPA.499..235H.doi:10.1016/S0168-9002(02)01937-X. ^Courant,ErnestD.(December2003)."Accelerators,Colliders,andSnakes".AnnualReviewofNuclearandParticleScience.53(1):1–37.Bibcode:2003ARNPS..53....1C.doi:10.1146/annurev.nucl.53.041002.110450.ISSN 0163-8998. ^"index".Vepp2k.inp.nsk.su.Archivedfromtheoriginalon29October2012.Retrieved21July2012. ^"TheVEPP-4accelerating-storagecomplex".V4.inp.nsk.su.Archivedfromtheoriginalon16July2011.Retrieved21July2012. ^"VEPP-2Mcollidercomplex"(inRussian).Inp.nsk.su.Retrieved21July2012. ^"TheBudkerInstituteofNuclearPhysics".EnglishRussia.21January2012.Retrieved23June2012. ^"Welcometo".Info.cern.ch.Retrieved23June2012. ^"Germany'slargestacceleratorcentre".DeutschesElektronen-SynchrotronDESY.Retrieved23June2012. ^"Fermilab|Home".Fnal.gov.Retrieved23June2012. ^"IHEP|Home".ihep.ac.cn.Archivedfromtheoriginalon1February2016.Retrieved29November2015. ^"Kek|HighEnergyAcceleratorResearchOrganization".Legacy.kek.jp.Archivedfromtheoriginalon21June2012.Retrieved23June2012. ^"SLACNationalAcceleratorLaboratoryHomePage".Retrieved19February2015. ^Wolchover,Natalie(22December2017)."TheBestExplanationforEverythingintheUniverse".TheAtlantic.Retrieved11March2022. ^"arXiv.orge-Printarchive". ^"Fermilab|ScienceatFermilab|BenefitstoSociety".Fnal.gov.Retrieved23June2012. Furtherreading[edit] Introductoryreading Close,Frank(2004).ParticlePhysics:AVeryShortIntroduction.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-280434-1. Close,Frank;Marten,Michael;Sutton,Christine(2004).TheParticleOdyssey:AJourneytotheHeartoftheMatter.TheParticleOdyssey :AJourneytotheHeartoftheMatter.Bibcode:2002pojh.book.....C.ISBN 9780198609438. Ford,KennethW.(2005).TheQuantumWorld.HarvardUniversityPress. Oerter,Robert(2006).TheTheoryofAlmostEverything:TheStandardModel,theUnsungTriumphofModernPhysics.Plume. Schumm,BruceA.(2004).DeepDownThings:TheBreathtakingBeautyofParticlePhysics.JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-8018-7971-5. Close,Frank(2006).TheNewCosmicOnion.Taylor&Francis.ISBN 978-1-58488-798-0. Advancedreading Robinson,MatthewB.;Bland,KarenR.;Cleaver,Gerald.B.;Dittmann,JayR.(2008)."ASimpleIntroductiontoParticlePhysics".arXiv:0810.3328[hep-th]. Robinson,MatthewB.;Ali,Tibra;Cleaver,GeraldB.(2009)."ASimpleIntroductiontoParticlePhysicsPartII".arXiv:0908.1395[hep-th]. Griffiths,DavidJ.(1987).IntroductiontoElementaryParticles.Wiley,John&Sons,Inc.ISBN 978-0-471-60386-3. Kane,GordonL.(1987).ModernElementaryParticlePhysics.PerseusBooks.ISBN 978-0-201-11749-3. Perkins,DonaldH.(1999).IntroductiontoHighEnergyPhysics.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-62196-0. Povh,Bogdan(1995).ParticlesandNuclei:AnIntroductiontothePhysicalConcepts.Springer-Verlag.ISBN 978-0-387-59439-2. Boyarkin,Oleg(2011).AdvancedParticlePhysicsTwo-VolumeSet.CRCPress.ISBN 978-1-4398-0412-4. Terranova,Francesco(2021).AModernPrimerinParticleandNuclearPhysics.OxfordUniv.Press.ISBN 978-0192845252. Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoParticlephysics. Wikiquotehasquotationsrelatedto:Particlephysics Symmetrymagazine Fermilab Particlephysics–itmatters–theInstituteofPhysics Nobes,Matthew(2002)"IntroductiontotheStandardModelofParticlePhysics"onKuro5hin:Part1,Part2,Part3a,Part3b. CERN–EuropeanOrganizationforNuclearResearch TheParticleAdventure–educationalprojectsponsoredbytheParticleDataGroupoftheLawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory(LBNL) vteBranchesofphysicsDivisions Pure Applied Engineering Approaches Experimental Theoretical Computational Classical Classicalmechanics Newtonian Analytical Celestial Continuum Acoustics Classicalelectromagnetism Classicaloptics Ray Wave Thermodynamics Statistical Non-equilibrium Modern Relativisticmechanics Special General Nuclearphysics Quantummechanics Particlephysics Atomic,molecular,andopticalphysics Atomic Molecular Modernoptics Condensedmatterphysics Interdisciplinary Astrophysics Atmosphericphysics Biophysics Chemicalphysics Geophysics Materialsscience Mathematicalphysics Medicalphysics Oceanphysics Quantuminformationscience Related Historyofphysics NobelPrizeinPhysics Physicseducation Timelineofphysicsdiscoveries vteParticlesinphysicsElementaryFermionsQuarks Up(quark antiquark) Down(quark antiquark) Charm(quark antiquark) Strange(quark antiquark) Top(quark antiquark) Bottom(quark antiquark) Leptons Electron Positron Muon Antimuon Tau Antitau Electronneutrino Electronantineutrino Muonneutrino Muonantineutrino Tauneutrino Tauantineutrino BosonsGauge Photon Gluon WandZbosons Scalar Higgsboson Ghostfields Faddeev–Popovghosts HypotheticalSuperpartnersGauginos Gluino Gravitino Photino Others Axino Chargino Higgsino Neutralino Sfermion(Stopsquark) Others Axion Curvaton Dilaton Dualgraviton Graviphoton Graviton Inflaton Leptoquark Magneticmonopole Majoron Majoranafermion Darkphoton Preon Sterileneutrino Tachyon W′andZ′bosons XandYbosons CompositeHadronsBaryons Nucleon Proton Antiproton Neutron Antineutron Deltabaryon Lambdabaryon Sigmabaryon Xibaryon Omegabaryon Mesons Pion Rhomeson Etaandetaprimemesons Bottometameson Phimeson J/psimeson Omegameson Upsilonmeson Kaon Bmeson Dmeson Quarkonium Exotichadrons Tetraquark(Double-charmtetraquark) Pentaquark Others Atomicnuclei Atoms Exoticatoms Positronium Muonium Tauonium Onia Pionium Protonium Superatoms Molecules HypotheticalBaryons Hexaquark Heptaquark Skyrmion Mesons Glueball Thetameson Tmeson Others Mesonicmolecule Pomeron Diquark R-hadron Quasiparticles Anyon Davydovsoliton Dropleton Exciton Fracton Hole Magnon Phonon Plasmaron Plasmon Polariton Polaron Roton Trion Lists Baryons Mesons Particles Quasiparticles Timelineofparticlediscoveries Related Historyofsubatomicphysics timeline StandardModel mathematicalformulation Subatomicparticles Particles Antiparticles Nuclearphysics Eightfoldway Quarkmodel Exoticmatter Masslessparticle Relativisticparticle Virtualparticle Wave–particleduality Particlechauvinism Physicsportal vteThefundamentalinteractionsofphysicsPhysicalforces Stronginteraction Fundamental Residual Electroweakinteraction Weakinteraction Electromagnetism Gravitation Radiations Electromagneticradiation Gravitationalradiation Hypotheticalforces Fifthforce Quintessence Weakgravityconjecture Glossaryofphysics Particlephysics Philosophyofphysics Universe Weaklessuniverse vteStandardModelBackground Particlephysics Fermions Gaugeboson Higgsboson Quantumfieldtheory Gaugetheory Stronginteraction Colorcharge Quantumchromodynamics Quarkmodel Electroweakinteraction Weakinteraction Quantumelectrodynamics Fermi'sinteraction Weakhypercharge Weakisospin Constituents CKMmatrix Spontaneoussymmetrybreaking Higgsmechanism MathematicalformulationoftheStandardModel BeyondtheStandardModelEvidence Hierarchyproblem Darkmatter Cosmologicalconstantproblem StrongCPproblem Neutrinooscillation Theories Technicolor Kaluza–Kleintheory GrandUnifiedTheory Theoryofeverything Supersymmetry MSSM Splitsupersymmetry Supergravity Quantumgravity Stringtheory Superstringtheory Loopquantumgravity Causaldynamicaltriangulation Canonicalquantumgravity Superfluidvacuumtheory Twistortheory Experiments GranSasso INO LHC SNO Super-K Tevatron Portal:Physics Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Particle_physics&oldid=1081616537" 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