Planning - Wikipedia

Planning is the process of thinking regarding the activities required to achieve a desired goal. Planning is based on foresight, the fundamental capacity ... Planning FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Regardingtheactivitiesrequiredtoachieveadesired goal "Forethought"redirectshere.Forthedefunctsoftwarecompany,seeForethought,Inc. Thisarticleisabouttheconcept.Forurbanplanning,oftenreferredtoassimply"planning",seeurbanplanning. Planningistheprocessofthinkingregardingtheactivitiesrequiredtoachieveadesiredgoal.Planningisbasedonforesight,thefundamentalcapacityformentaltimetravel.Theevolutionofforethought,thecapacitytothinkahead,isconsideredtohavebeenaprimemoverinhumanevolution.[1]Planningisafundamentalpropertyofintelligentbehavior.Itinvolvestheuseoflogicandimaginationtovisualisenotonlyadesiredendresult,butthestepsnecessarytoachievethatresult. Animportantaspectofplanningisitsrelationshiptoforecasting.Forecastingaimstopredictwhatthefuturewilllooklike,whileplanningimagineswhatthefuturecouldlooklike. Planningaccordingtoestablishedprinciplesisacorepartofmanyprofessionaloccupations,particularlyinfieldssuchasmanagementandbusiness.Onceaplanhasbeendevelopeditispossibletomeasureandassessprogress,efficiencyandeffectiveness.Ascircumstanceschange,plansmayneedtobemodifiedorevenabandoned. Contents 1Psychology 1.1Neuropsychologicaltests 2Planningtheories 2.1Business 2.2Publicpolicy 2.3Personal 3Alternativestoplanning 4Typesofplanning 5Seealso 6References 7Furtherreading Psychology[edit] TheStriatum;partofthebasalganglia;neuralpathwaysbetweenthestriatumandthefrontallobehavebeenimplicatedinplanningfunction. Planningisoneoftheexecutivefunctionsofthebrain,encompassingtheneurologicalprocessesinvolvedintheformulation,evaluationandselectionofasequenceofthoughtsandactionstoachieveadesiredgoal.Variousstudiesutilizingacombinationofneuropsychological,neuropharmacologicalandfunctionalneuroimagingapproacheshavesuggestedthereisapositiverelationshipbetweenimpairedplanningabilityanddamagetothefrontallobe. Aspecificareawithinthemid-dorsolateralfrontalcortexlocatedinthefrontallobehasbeenimplicatedasplayinganintrinsicroleinbothcognitiveplanningandassociatedexecutivetraitssuchasworkingmemory. Disruptionoftheneuralpathways,viavariousmechanismssuchastraumaticbraininjury,ortheeffectsofneurodegenerativediseasesbetweenthisareaofthefrontalcortexandthebasalganglia,specificallythestriatum(cortico-striatalpathway),maydisrupttheprocessesrequiredfornormalplanningfunction.[2] IndividualswhowerebornVeryLowBirthWeight(<1500 grams)andExtremelyLowBirthWeight(ELBW)areatgreaterriskforvariouscognitivedeficitsincludingplanningability.[3][4]№ Neuropsychologicaltests[edit] AnimationofafourdiscversionoftheTowerofHanoi. Thereareavarietyofneuropsychologicaltestswhichcanbeusedtomeasurevarianceofplanningabilitybetweenthesubjectandcontrols. TowerofHanoi(TOH-R),apuzzleinventedin1883bytheFrenchmathematicianÉdouardLucas.Therearedifferentvariationsofthepuzzle,theclassicversionconsistsofthreerodsandusuallyseventoninediscsofsubsequentlysmallersize.Planningisakeycomponentoftheproblemsolvingskillsnecessarytoachievetheobjective,whichistomovetheentirestacktoanotherrod,obeyingthefollowingrules: Onlyonediskmaybemovedatatime. Eachmoveconsistsoftakingtheupperdiskfromoneoftherodsandslidingitontoanotherrod,ontopoftheotherdisksthatmayalreadybepresentonthatrod. Nodiskmaybeplacedontopofasmallerdisk.[5][6] ScreenshotofthePEBLpsychologysoftwarerunningtheTowerofLondontest TowerofLondon(TOL)isanothertestthatwasdevelopedin1992(Shallice1992)specificallytodetectdeficitsinplanningasmayoccurwithdamagetothefrontallobe.Testparticipantswithdamagetotheleftanteriorfrontallobedemonstratedplanningdeficits(i.e.,greaternumberofmovesrequiredforsolution). Testparticipantswithdamagetotherightanterior,andleftorrightposteriorareasofthefrontallobesshowednoimpairment.TheresultsimplicatingtheleftanteriorfrontallobesinvolvementinsolvingtheTOLweresupportedinconcomitantneuroimagingstudieswhichalsoshowedareductioninregionalcerebralbloodflowtotheleftpre-frontallobe.Forthenumberofmoves,asignificantnegativecorrelationwasobservedfortheleftprefrontalarea:i.e.subjectsthattookmoretimeplanningtheirmovesshowedgreateractivationintheleftprefrontalarea.[7] Planningtheories[edit] Business[edit] Exampleofplanningprocessframework. Ifyou'vegotnoplannothingcangowrong.SignTangentyereCouncil,AliceSprings PatrickMontanaandBruceCharnovoutlineathree-stepresult-orientedprocessforplanning:[8] Choosingadestination Evaluatingalternativeroutes Decidingthespecificcourseoftheplan Inorganizations,planningcanbecomeamanagementprocess,concernedwithdefininggoalsforafuturedirectionanddeterminingonthemissionsandresourcestoachievethosetargets.Tomeetthegoals,managersmaydevelopplanssuchasabusinessplanoramarketingplan.Planningalwayshasapurpose.Thepurposemayinvolvetheachievementofcertaingoalsortargets:efficientuseofresources,reducingrisk,expandingtheorganisationanditsassetsetc. Publicpolicy[edit] Publicpolicyplanningincludesenvironmental,landuse,regional,urbanandspatialplanning.Inmanycountries,theoperationofatownandcountryplanningsystemisoftenreferredtoas"planning"andtheprofessionalswhichoperatethesystemareknownas"planners". Itisaconsciousaswellassub-consciousactivity.Itis"ananticipatorydecisionmakingprocess"thathelpsincopingwithcomplexities.Itisdecidingfuturecourseofactionfromamongstalternatives.Itisaprocessthatinvolvesmakingandevaluatingeachsetofinterrelateddecisions.Itisselectionofmissions,objectivesand"translationofknowledgeintoaction."Aplannedperformancebringsbetterresultscomparedtoanunplannedone.Amanager'sjobisplanning,monitoringandcontrolling.Planningandgoalsettingareimportanttraitsofanorganization.Itisdoneatalllevelsoftheorganization.Planningincludestheplan,thethoughtprocess,action,andimplementation.Planninggivesmorepoweroverthefuture.Planningisdecidinginadvancewhattodo,howtodoit,whentodoit,andwhoshoulddoit.Thisbridgesthegapfromwheretheorganizationistowhereitwantstobe.Theplanningfunctioninvolvesestablishinggoalsandarrangingtheminlogicalorder.Anorganizationthatplanswellachievesfastergoalsthanonethatdoesnotplanbeforeimplementation. Personal[edit] Planningisnotjustaprofessionalactivity:itisafeatureofeverydaylife,whetherforcareeradvancement,organisinganeventorevenjustgettingthroughabusyday. Alternativestoplanning[edit] Opportunismcansupplementorreplaceplanning.[9][10] Typesofplanning[edit] Automatedplanningandscheduling Businessplan Centralplanning Collaborativeplanning,forecasting,andreplenishment Comprehensiveplanning Contingencyplanning Economicplanning Enterprisearchitectureplanning Environmentalplanning Eventplanning Familyplanning Financialplanning Landuseplanning Landscapeplanning Lessonplanning Marketingplan Networkresourceplanning Operationalplanning PlanningDomainDefinitionLanguage Regionalplanning Siteplanning Spatialplanning Strategicplanning Successionplanning Timemanagement Urbanplanning Seealso[edit] Philosophyportal Psychologyportal Futuresstudies Learningtheory(education) Planningfallacy Projectmanagement Timemanagement References[edit] ^SuddendorfT,CorballisMC(June2007)."Theevolutionofforesight:Whatismentaltimetravel,andisituniquetohumans?"(PDF).TheBehavioralandBrainSciences.30(3):299–313,discussion313–51.doi:10.1017/S0140525X07001975.PMID 17963565. ^Owen,AM(Nov1997)."Cognitiveplanninginhumans:neuropsychological,neuroanatomicalandneuropharmacologicalperspectives".ProgNeurobiol.53(4):431–50.doi:10.1016/s0301-0082(97)00042-7.PMID 9421831.S2CID 69523. ^Harvey,JM;O'Callaghan,MJ;Mohay,H(May1999)."Executivefunctionofchildrenwithextremelylowbirthweight:acasecontrolstudy".DevMedChildNeurol.41(5):292–7.doi:10.1017/s0012162299000663.PMID 10378753. ^Aarnoudse-Moens,CS;Weisglas-Kuperus,N;vanGoudoever,JB;Oosterlaan,J(Aug2009)."Meta-analysisofneurobehavioraloutcomesinverypretermand/orverylowbirthweightchildren"(PDF).Pediatrics.124(2):717–28.doi:10.1542/peds.2008-2816.PMID 19651588.S2CID 18012434. ^Welsh,MC;Huizinga,M(Jun2001)."ThedevelopmentandpreliminaryvalidationoftheTowerofHanoi-revised".Assessment.8(2):167–76.doi:10.1177/107319110100800205.PMID 11428696.S2CID 27931772. ^Anderson,JR;Albert,MV;Fincham,JM(Aug2005)."Tracingproblemsolvinginrealtime:fMRIanalysisofthesubject-pacedTowerofHanoi".JCognNeurosci.17(8):1261–74.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.139.8424.doi:10.1162/0898929055002427.PMID 16197682.S2CID 7567982. ^Shallice,T.(1982)."Specificimpairmentsofplanning".PhilosophicalTransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyofLondon.SeriesB,BiologicalSciences.298(1089):199–209.doi:10.1098/rstb.1982.0082.PMID 6125971. ^Barron'sManagement,Barron'sBusinessReviewbookfifthedition:PatrickJ.MontanaandBruceH.Charnov ^Forexample: Faludi,Andreas(1987).ADecision-centredViewofEnvironmentalPlanning.UrbanandRegionalPlanningSeries.Vol. 38.Oxford:Elsevier(published2013).p. 208.ISBN 9781483286488.Retrieved2018-07-11.Planswhichdonotallowfor[accommodatingthepublicandprivateinterestinlanddevelopment]willbeneglected.Sotheeffectistheoppositeofwhatisintended:opportunism. ^Hammond,Kristian,etal."Opportunismandlearning."MachineLearning10.3(1993):279-309. Furtherreading[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoPlanning. LookupplanninginWiktionary,thefreedictionary. Wikiquotehasquotationsrelatedto:Planning Allmendinger,Phil;Gunder,Michael(2005)."ApplyingLacanianInsightandaDashofDerrideanDeconstructiontoPlanning's'DarkSide'".PlanningTheory.4:87–112.doi:10.1177/1473095205051444.S2CID 145100234. Bazin,A.(2012).Bilateralandmultilateralplanning:Bestpracticesandlessonslearned.Strategos. Das,JP,BinodCKar,RaunoKParrila.CognitivePlanning:ThePsychologicalBasisofIntelligentBehaviour.SagePublicationsPvt.Ltd;illustratededition.EnglishISBN 0-8039-9287-4ISBN 978-0-8039-9287-0 Gunder,Michael(2003)."PassionatePlanningfortheOthers'Desire:AnAgonisticResponsetotheDarkSideofPlanning".ProgressinPlanning.60(3):235–319.doi:10.1016/s0305-9006(02)00115-0. Pløger,John(2001)."PublicParticipationandtheArtofGovernance".EnvironmentandPlanningB:PlanningandDesign.28(2):219–241.doi:10.1068/b2669.S2CID 143996926. Roy,Ananya(2008)."Post-Liberalism:OntheEthico-PoliticsofPlanning".PlanningTheory.7(1):92–102.doi:10.1177/1473095207087526.S2CID 143458706. Tang,Wing-Shing(2000)."ChineseUrbanPlanningatFifty:AnAssessmentofthePlanningTheoryLiterature".JournalofPlanningLiterature.14(3):347–366.doi:10.1177/08854120022092700.S2CID 154281106. Yiftachel,Oren,1995,"TheDarkSideofModernism:PlanningasControlofanEthnicMinority,"inSophieWatsonandKatherineGibson,eds.,PostmodernCitiesandSpaces(OxfordandCambridge,MA:Blackwell),pp. 216–240. Yiftachel,Oren(1998)."PlanningandSocialControl:ExploringtheDarkSide".JournalofPlanningLiterature.12(4):395–406.doi:10.1177/088541229801200401.S2CID 14859857. Yiftachel,Oren(2006)."Re-engagingPlanningTheory?TowardsSouth-EasternPerspectives".PlanningTheory.5(3):211–222.doi:10.1177/1473095206068627.S2CID 145359885. 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